Early Settlement

The centre of the antique city area stretches between two mountain ridges, Bülbüldağ in the south and Panayırdağ in the north. However, the oldest traces of settlement in Ephesos can be found about 1 km south-east of the Hellenistic-Roman city limits on Çukuriçi Höyük. Human traces on this artificial tell date back to the Neolithic period, i.e. the phase in which humans settled in Anatolia in the 7th millennium BC. The Çukuriçi Höyük quickly developed into a trading hub between the Aegean and Central Anatolia, with valuable raw materials being traded thousands of kilometres away. In the early 3rd millennium, in the early Bronze Age, the hill was abandoned and subsequently the Ayasoluk Hill in today's Selçuk was colonised. In the region of Ephesos, a central town emerged during the 2nd millennium, which has come down to us from Hittite sources and was most probably called Apaša.

From around 1000 BC, groups from Greece migrated to Asia Minor over a longer period of time and founded small towns in the resource-rich region modelled on their home communities. The exact location of these settlements has not yet been fully clarified archaeologically, but finds under the later trading agora and on the Panayırdağ can be linked to the presence of Greeks. Another settlement, which has not yet been excavated, was located around the sanctuary of the Ephesian Artemis, who was also worshipped in a monumental building, the oldest temple, from the 7th century BC at the latest. The earliest temple from the 7th century was followed by a completely new building in the 6th century, which is attributed to the Lydian king Kroisos. After a fire in 356 BC, the year Alexander the Great was born, the Ephesians erected a monumental temple on the same site, which fascinated the ancients with its location, construction techniques, architecture and splendid furnishings and has been passed down to us in numerous descriptions, eventually even as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. 

New foundation under Lysimachus

The founding of Ephesos under King Lysimachus around 300 B.C. marked a huge turning point in the further history of the settlement. The construction of a planned central city entailed a forced resettlement from the nearby small towns. The 9-kilometre-long fortification wall on the mountain slopes and the planimetric city grid designed according to the hippodamian principle still bear witness to the new Hellenistic foundation of Ephesos. Only a few monuments visible today date back to the Hellenistic period. The most prominent example is undoubtedly the great theatre of Ephesos, which dates back to the 3rd century BC but was fundamentally altered during the Roman Empire.

Integration into the Roman Empire

It was not until the incorporation of Asia Minor into the Roman Empire in 133 BC and the appointment of Ephesos as the capital of the newly established province of Asia – probably around 60 BC - that the actual expansion of Ephesos into a major ancient city began.  

Following the grid laid out in the Hellenistic period, the slopes were now also built on. The squares and streets were lined with monuments of honour and foundations of wealthy citizens, who were thus able to display their wealth and serve the common good. The Romans also invested in the city's infrastructure. Particular attention was paid to the water supply in order to guarantee drinking and industrial water in the ever-growing metropolis. Aqueducts brought fresh mountain water into the city, where it could be drawn from numerous public fountains. The design of the nymphaea went far beyond their practical use; rather, they were magnificent buildings, usually with elaborate architecture and sculptural decoration, with which the founders created a monument to themselves. The political centre of the city was located on the Upper Agora, where the Bouleuterion and the Prytaneion were situated. In the second half of the 1st century AD, Ephesos was granted the privilege of erecting a temple in honour of a reigning emperor for the first time. This cult building, which was probably originally dedicated to Emperor Domitian, formed the western end of the Agora and was visible from afar due to its unique topographical location. After the death of Domitian and his damnatio memoriae, in the course of which any memory of the emperor had to be erased, the Flavian dynasty was generally honoured here. 

Curetes Street, which connected the lower town with the upper town, was subject to a different urban concept. Originally planned as a sacred processional route, it retained its irregular course and thus deviated from the orthogonal street grid. In the course of the Roman imperial period, the Curetes Street developed into an inner-city boulevard, adorned on both sides with monuments of honour and public foundations. In late antiquity, it can be described as a pedestrian zone, as the construction of the Heracles Gate in the east had finally made it impossible for carriages to pass. Of the numerous imperial foundations, only a few can be singled out as examples. The Nymphaeum Traiani, for example, was the end point of a long water pipeline that supplied the city of Ephesos with drinking water. The residents could draw water here and it was also channelled into the nearby houses. The richly decorated building also served the founder as a means of self-expression and ultimately as a link to his burial place. The tomb of honour of the family of Tiberius Claudius Aristion, one of the richest and most powerful citizens of the city of Ephesos in the early 2nd century AD, is believed to be located next to the monument. With his foundation, he bought himself the privilege of a burial in the city centre. Probably the most prominent monument on Curetes Street is the so-called Temple of Hadrian, a private foundation for the people of Ephesos, the Ephesian Artemis and the Emperor Hadrian. This building was probably used as an inner-city station during the annual Artemis procession. In late antiquity, the building was renovated again and decorated with four bronze statues of the emperor, which were placed on high marble pedestals in front of the columns. 

The crowning glory of Curetes Street, however, is the Celsus Library, whose façade was rebuilt in the 1970s. Designed as a public library in the early 2nd century, the Trajanic period, it housed around 10,000 book rolls on two floors. The richly decorated façade was used by the founder and builder, Tiberius Iulius Celsus Polemaeanus and his son Tiberius Iulius Aquila, to showcase themselves. The burial chamber of Celsus is located at the back of the library. The mighty sarcophagus, decorated with garlands, still stands in its original position today. 

The vibrant centre of the city of Ephesos was undoubtedly located in the harbour area, near the artificial harbour basin built in Roman times. Goods were traded on the Tetragonos Agora and offered for sale in numerous shops. The large theatre of Ephesos, one of the largest in antiquity with a capacity of 22,000 seats, was also located nearby. Theatre performances took place here, as well as the munera, i.e. gladiator fights and animal hunts. The theatre of Ephesos is also known for its function as a place of popular assembly. The description of the Ephesian silversmiths' revolt against Paul's missionary activities in the Acts of the Apostles is particularly impressive. Incited by the silversmiths, who feared for their trade, the people of Ephesos gathered in the theatre, where tumultuous scenes ensued. In the end, those present chanted »Great is Artemis of Ephesus« and demanded Paul's departure from Ephesos. The theatre of Ephesos remained in use for a long time before it was incorporated into the fortifications in Byzantine times. 

The lifeline of the Hellenistic-Roman city was undoubtedly the harbour of Ephesos, which was extremely conveniently located in terms of transport and was artificially reinforced from the 2nd century BC at the latest. The port formed the basis for the rise of Ephesos to a trading centre in the eastern Mediterranean and ensured economic prosperity for many centuries.

However, the city's prosperity in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, which manifested itself in an impressive building programme, did not prevent Ephesos from slipping into the economic crisis of the 3rd century AD, which was felt in large parts of the empire. The city was also severely affected by natural disasters during this period. However, Ephesos experienced another great period of prosperity in late antiquity. 

Now much smaller, the centre of the city was located in the former harbour area and was adorned with representative buildings and churches. As a pilgrimage centre for visitors who came to see St John's Church, the Cemetery of the Seven Sleepers, St Luke's Tomb or St Mary's Church, a new and very lucrative economic sector was developed.

From the 7th to the 14th century

After the 7th century, the city area shrank again and was centred on the area around St Mary's Church, but remained sporadically inhabited until the 14th century.  At the same time, a Byzantine settlement developed in the area of the already destroyed Temple of Artemis from the 11th century at the latest, which subsequently merged into the Turkish city of Ayasoluk. This experienced its heyday in the 14th century under the princes of Aydın, before large parts of the population left the plain in search of more favourable living conditions and retreated to the mountains.

(from: M. Steskal, 9000 Jahre Ephesos. Geschichte einer antiken Metropole, Antike Welt (2/25), 8–13.)