Abstract:
CHANGING LANDSCAPE AND AGRICULTURE.
Subtitel: Greenland in Austria's mountain region.
This project aims at the analysis of interlinkages between the greenland's system ecology and socio-economy as well as their theoretical formulation. From this analysis insights should be gained into the processes of change in the greenland which can be applied to concrete instructions for the management of the greenland in oder to arrive at optimal intensities of utilization which would guarantee the social and economic values of the greenland in the best possible way.
Building upon research results from the pilot project carried out in the central Enns Valley of Styria which directly link ecosystemic and socio-economic factors a theoretical research framework is being developed that incorporates the environmental as well as the societal resource base of the greenland which will permit finding an answer to the central research question concerning the optimality of the intensity of utilization of the greenland.

        Projektleitung:

Klaus Wagner
Federal Institute of Agricultural Economics
Vienna, Austria
e-mail: klaus.wagner@awi.bmlf.gv.at

The report describes the first step of the project of the Federal Institute of Agriculture in the framework of the MaB-project “Alpine Grassland”.  It gives a statistical  overview of  the grassland and its development in Austria, focussing on the alpine grassland. The difficult natural resources of the alpine regions are presented also  the different land use-patterns against the socio-economic and demographic background. One aim of the project is to find the different types of grassland and grassland-farming in the alpine region to make it possible to react in a correct way to the very different developments of grassland and its use in the alps.

Natural Conditions of Grassland Area and Sociocultural Framework
Intensity of Grasslands

Martin Seger
Institute of Geography
Klagenfurt, Austria
e-mail: martin.seger@uni-klu.ac.at

Geography‘s contribution within the MAB-grassland project is on the one hand a support at the test sites (e.g.: poster „land use change Ennstal“). Another goal is a country-wide overview related to grassland patterns and processes with two very different methods: a GIS takes the technological state of the art to present facts about the alpine „Kulturlandschaft“. Contrasting to that a qualitative and humanistic approach is used: the visualisation of the mountaneous grassland areas.  Disparities in grassland biodiversity, in grassland economy and a landscape typology are documented by images. The importance of farming for the sustainability of the scenic attraction is demonstrated by this visualisation. From a theoretical point of view, land use processes will be explained as the result of interactions between the socioeconomical system and the natural conditions of a site/of a region. The benefit of this theory is a contribution to the prediction of further land use changes.

Utilisation intensities of alpine grassland ? at the intersection of biosphere and social-economic sphere
Explanatory interdisciplinary models of differentiation of utilisation and cultivation intensities

Hans Karl Wytrzens
Institute of Agricultural Economics
University of Agricultural Sciences
Vienna, Austria
e-mail: wytrzens@edv1.boku.ac.at

Mountain areas are often characterised by difficult economic situations and ecological sensitivity. Any attempt to optimise land use in such regions on a long-term, sustainable basis must be based on a comprehensive understanding of the workings of the land-use system currently dominating mountain landscapes: “grassland”. Grassland’s very existence, its functions and its future prospects are determined by a complex of interactions between natural and economic factors. Theoretical considerations and the empirical results of pilot studies show that the following groups of factors have the greatest influence on grassland characteristics:
– key ecological factors, namely topography, climate, pedology and vegetation ecology
– key socioeconomic factors, namely the socioeconomic operating environment (as determined by legislation, agricultural policy, agricultural markets and infrastructure), and enterprise level factors (stocking densities, milk quotas etc.)
Given the diversity of these determinants and the interactions between them, a proper understanding of all the relevant relationships can only be achieved through interdisciplinary research approaches. This should involve co-operation between agricultural economists, geographers, production technologists and botanists. Appropriate research should help explain why the intensity of use and management of grassland varies so much. It should also help identify promising intervention strategies which would allow us to guide the use and management of grassland towards those forms and intensities most desired by society.
The interdisciplinary model designed to address these issues is based on the idea that we need to find the relationships between those factors described above (independent variables) and grassland usage or management intensity (dependent variables). In the context of a multifunctional agriculture, we are looking to find an explanation for “grassland usage intensity”, a concept which needs closer definition. “Grassland use” is taken to include any demand placed on pastures or meadows in order to satisfy a need. “Grassland usage intensity” should then reflect the range of tasks which individual parcels of land are expected to fulfil. The level of this intensity depends on both the number of different types of use and the extent of the actual demands made by each usage form.
Agricultural management underpins the existence of grassland, so the intensity of this management is also calculated independent of total usage  intensity. This management intensity characterises the degree of economic exploitation of grassland in the context of agriculture, whereby factors related to agricultural technology are also drawn into the model.
Preliminary work with individual components of the full interdisciplinary model (which is still under construction) already shows that there are indeed plausible and complex relationships between economic /ecological variables and the intensity of use / management of grassland. The next stage of the research is concentrating on adapting the existing partial models so that they can be integrated within a single model.

Mountain meadows in the Czech Republic

Eliška Bittnerová
Bílé Karpaty Biosphere Reserve, Bartolomejské nám. 47
CZ - 698 01 Veselí nad Moravou
e-mail: csop@es-servis.cz

The most important mountainous and submountainous grasslands of the Czech Republic are found in the Krkonoše (Giant Mountains), Šumava (Bavarian Forest) and Bílé Karpaty (White Carpathians) biosphere reserves.
The paper deals with the following items concerning these areas:
- origin of the grasslands (predominantly anthropogenous, caused by colonization, deforestation, farming)
- main types of meadows, their plant communities and important plant and animal species
- recreational function of grasslands (skiing, agri-tourism, etc.)
-  changes in traditional farming activities after the 2nd World War (nationalization, intensification, destruction) and the impact on spatial and species diversity
- management activities by the BR administrations (e.g. mowing, cattle grazing, restoration), collaboration with farmers, municipalities and NGOs
- monitoring of the effects of different management types on biodiversity and endangered plant species, first results
- subvention policy, position of the Ministry of the Environment and Ministry of Agriculture
- current farming, biological farms, sustainable forms of agriculture.

Dobromil Galvanek
DAPHNE
Bratislava, Slovakia
e-mail: DAPHNE@changenet.sk

The grassland inventory project in Slovakia started in 1998 in the co-operation of Slovak NGO DAPHNE and Dutch NGO Royal Dutch Society for Nature Conservation. The data from the mapping should fill the gap in the knowledge about current distribution of different types of grasslands in Slovakia, about their diversity and management. The classification system for grasslands should be created for both scientific and managerial purposes. Then the most threatened and the most unique types and localities will be recognised and state subsidies in agricultural sector should be preferentially oriented for their management.
The field mapping started in 1999, with the help of more than 80 mapping experts from whole Slovakia. The estimation of grassland coverage in Slovakia according remote sensing analysis is more than 8400 km2. Especially mountain areas with seminatural grasslands are mapped in the first stage of the project. It is planned to finish field mapping in 5 years.

Grasslands in the UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve East Carpathians: influences of land-use and management changes

Luboš Halada
Institute of Landscape Ecology SAS, Branch Nitra, Akademická 2
SK-949 01 Nitra, Slovakia
E-mail: nrukhala@savba.sk

Grasslands in the Biosphere Reserve East Carpathians are of cultural-historical as well as of scientific and nature conservation importance. They have a high biodiversity, they are rich in endangered and rare species as well as east-carpathian species with occurrence on the west boundary of their area of distribution. During the last 25 years large changes were carried out in the mood of grassland management in the Biosphere Reserve, grasslands are endangered by degradation and retreat, resp. extinction. Permanent monitoring plots, covering all endangered meadow communities and 75% of grassland and wetland plant species, known from the Slovak part of the Biosphere Reserve have been established. Species composition and abundance in relationship with mood of management is recorded each year. First results show significant changes in species composition as a result of different types of management.
Construction of the water reservoir "Starina" in 1987 represented important impulse for starting of the large-scale changes of land-use in part of the BR East Carpathians. All villages in the reservoir watershed were evacuated, grassland, fields, orchards, and gardens were abandoned. Data on vegetation structure, soils and geomorphology in the upper part of the Cirocha river watershed were collected in 1999. After their completion by further data, especially concerning land-use changes, they can serve as a basic material for monitoring of non-forest vegetation changes and for identification of the most important sites for grasslands biodiversity protection.
 

Changes in farming systems, landscape, and nature:
key success factors of agri-environmental schemes

Karlheinz Knickel
Johann Wolfgang Goethe - University
Frankfurt (Germany)
e-mail: knickel@em.uni-frankfurt.de

This paper proposed for the above symposium deals with changes in farming systems and nature conservation. The main questions asked are: How are changes in farming systems influenced by agri-environmental schemes? What makes agri-environmental schemes successful? Which criteria can be used to target schemes and to evaluate their effectiveness?
Focus is on:
-  grassland-based farming systems in mountainous areas;
-  the present situation and the relevant trends in Germany;
-  the immediate and longer term effects on nature conservation;
-  the question why a detailed understanding of the ecological links between farming practi-ces and wildlife value is necessary in order to formulate clear and effective policies.
The paper starts with a brief overview of trends in agricultural structures and production conditions in relevant regions of Germany. A major trend, the continuing concentration of crop and live-stock production in areas with intensive farming and the decoupling of less favoured areas from mainstream production, is discussed. The corresponding changes in farming systems and their impact on biodiversity provide the background for a discussion of the experiences with agri-environmental programs.
As for grassland-based farming systems there has been a strong tendency towards the abandonment of rough grazing systems with sheep as well as of semi-intensive mixed farming with dairy cows in most parts of Germany. The general trend is that the meadows which are remaining in production are very intensively utilized and that grassland used as pastures has decreased substantially. Most semi-natural, species rich grasslands and breeding areas for meadow birds were lost. Today, most milk and beef production is characterized by indoor systems and by rela-tively high inputs of concentrate feed. As for dairy cows there has been a major shift from more hilly grassland areas - the traditional beef and milk producing areas - to more central, mixed farm-ing areas with more capital intensive production systems.
The local and regional effects of these changes on nature, landscape and the environment were substantial.  Regionally, they led to the loss of richly structured and ecologically valuable landscapes and to an unprecedented reduction of species diversity manifesting itself visibly in the Red Lists of endangered plant and animal species. Key changes in wildlife value and correlation with changes in grassland-based farming systems are discussed.
Agri-environmental programs are one approach to deal with environmental problems. A large proportion of Reg. (EEC) 2078/92 measures are addressed towards protecting and enhancing the cultural landscape. Actual uptake of measures is concentrated in Mittelgebirgsregionen (upland and mountainous regions) and generally in regions where poorer soils and grassland predominate. The acceptance in intensively used regions with greater proportions of fertile arable land is comparatively low. In regions with higher uptake production systems often had been extensive even before the introduction of the schemes. The German farmers associa-tion emphasizes that farmers are active and supporting as long as the agreements are voluntary and if premiums are sufficiently attractive. Farmers reluctance concerning the adop-tion of measures which support the conversion to organic farming is partly explained by the relatively low financial incentives. Probably more important is the fact that marketing channels for organic produce are still too weak.
A particular advantage of Reg. (EEC) 2078/92 programs is that they have the potential to be very region specific. In correspondence the majority of agri-environmental schemes receiving EU co-financing is in Germany implemented through Laender specific programs which differ considerably. These variations reflect differences between Laender in agricultural, infrastructural and regional structures, in experiences with earlier programs and policies, the particular political and institutional situation, traditions, the particular environmental problems and the available financial means.
The question of assessing the ‘success’ of agri-environmental schemes is discussed in terms of the expected changes and a comparison with the actual outcome. Relevant criteria are uptake rates, actual changes achieved (in farming patterns, in production systems / practices), the stabilization of (often more traditional) high value systems, environmental effects and effects on nature protection (immediate and longer term), changes in attitudes, the achievement of structural adjustments (in farm structure and farm development strategies), farm income effects (micro-level; absolute and relative), the cost effectiveness of schemes (macro-level: administration and control costs), and finally, the public support for the scheme.
In the conclusions it is emphasized that agri-environmental schemes cannot overcome mainstream economics, because by their very nature they should be site-specific and focused on particular problems and potentials. It is pointed out that the pronounced regional variation of agriculture and of types and intensities of land use in Germany has to be reflected in a rather broad and yet regionally differentiated agro-environmental policy framework. The fact that  the specialization (regional and farm level) and intensification of agricultural production has over a long time been driven by economic signals sent by natio-nal governments and the CAP, is emphasized. In line with that it is argued that any stabilization of cer-tain traditional farming systems without major changes in overall economic framework conditions (prices, costs, markets) and without major farm structural changes requires very significant permanent subsidies. A significant deficit is seen in the lack of complementary programs which support investments aimed at the promotion of structural and longterm changes. Examples are the improvement of more decentralized, regional and local marketing structures, and the  establishment of biotope networks in mixed farming areas (e.g. hedges, semi-natural grassland and vegetation along rivers).

Changing of structures and productivity of different types of grassland in Tajikistan under anthropogenetic influence

Abdullo A. MADAMINOV
Institute of Botany
Academy of Sciences
Dushanbe, Tajikistan
e-mail: abdulloh@academy.td.silk.org

Tajikistan is highland country and 93 per cent of it territory in covered by mountains altitude - from 350 to 7000 m above sea-level, with precipitation varying from 70-100 mm to 1300-1500 mm per year. The mountain character of our Republic results in a complex mosaic of local bioclimatical conditions.
The whole area of Tajikistan is 14.3 million hectare, grasslands occupy 24.5% or 3.5 million hectare, forests - 3% and - 5%. The natural pasture (semisavannas, steppe and meadows types) is the important base of animal husbandry for Tajikistan. Main limited factors are short growing seasonand low production. The overgrazing and trampling brings about serious degradation of grassland, with a decrease of edible herbage and on increase of detrimental and poisonous weeds giving rise to reduction of productivity. Several key countermeasures of grassland management should be strengthened for sustainable development of animal husbandry.
The field station of the Tajik Botanical Institute occur in Western Tajikistan along profile in various zones and herbaceous floro-coenotypes from semisavannas and ephemeretum to subalpine steppes and alpine meadows.
For several years (with 1950) now they been studying the above- and underground structure and species diversity of vegetation communities, their development from season to season changes biological productivity and water balance, and the biology of principal species and their biochemical composition connected with anthropogenic influences (grazing, moving, cutting, fertilizer application). The research has been accompanied by experiments with fodder crops, improvements of grassland and their  rasional use.
The short grasses of semisavannas (Carex pachystylis, Poa bulbosa, 350- 800 m a.s.l.) develop best in winter and spring. The yield of aboveground phytomass varies from 0.20 to 2.23 t/ha (dry wieght), species diversity index (by Shannon, H) - 0.951 and equability index (J) - 0.453. The application of mineral fertilizers results in a three-time increase in the yields, the content of digestible protein increased to 200% in the grass.
The tall grass semisavannas (Elytrigia trichophora, Hordeum bulbosum, 900-1800 m a.s.l.), yield 1.40 - 3.51 t/ha, H - 1.867, J - 0.542. The aboveground to underground phytomass ratio respectively equals 1:8. The application of mineral fertilizer (N90P45) increased in the yields of tall grass semisavannas to 7.56 t/ha.
The yield of aboveground phitomass of the subalpine bunch-grass steppe (Festuca sulcata, Leucopoa olgae, Geranium regelii, Cousinia franchetii, 2500-3500 m a.s.l.) depending on weather conditions, varies from 0.46 to 1.45 t/ha. Alpine forb steppes (Nepeta podostachys, Lindelophia olgae,  Piptatherum alpestre, 3000-4000 m a.s.l.) yield 0.68 - 1.78 t/ha. Alpine short grass meadows (puccinellia supspicata, Allium fedtschenkoanum) yield 0.30 - 1.40 t/ha. The application of fertilizer was increased in yields of steppes and meadows pastures to 2.94 - 3.50 t/ha in average.
The effect anthropogenic factors (grazing, fertilizer application etc.) made considerable changes in species diversity of Tajikistan.
 

An ecological-economic model for agri-environmental policy decision support

David R. Oglethorpe *)  and Roy A. Sanderson**)
*) Natural Resource Economics Department, Scottish Agricultural College, Edinburgh, EH9 3JG, UK.
**) Centre for Land Use and Water Resources Research, University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK.

Correspondence Address:
Dr David R. Oglethorpe,  Natural Resource Economics Department,  Scottish Agricultural College,
Kings Buildings,  West Mains Road
Edinburgh, EH9 3JG,  UK.
e-mail: D.Oglethorpe@ed.sac.ac.uk

Operational models of economic activity, particularly at the farm scale, have become commonly used, and widely accepted methods and applications exist. Operational models of ecological systems probably have less of a history but processes of species interaction and succession are well documented. Relationships between economic farm-scale variables and resultant ecological diversity, however, are less well documented as are modelling frameworks which combine both economic and ecological operational systems. This paper explains how a utility maximising economic modelling framework may be linked to an ecological modelling system with the objective of allowing ex ante assessment of the ecological impact of certain key agricultural management parameters. Two models, initially designed for independent analyses, are introduced. Data pertaining to a survey of farm sites are used to demonstrate the types of relationships which emerge between agricultural management parameters and grassland vegetation.  A specific case-study site is selected for ecological and economic assessment under potential policy scenarios. The results of the analysis highlight the relevance of such an integrated modelling system for agri-environmental policy decision support.

Considerations on the dynamics of the mountain grasslands in the South Carpathians (Romania)

Mihaela Pauca-Comanescu, T. Marusca
Institute of Biology, Romanian Academy
Department of Ecology
Spl. Independentei 296,
79651- Buckarest, Romania
e-mail: mcpauca@fx.ro

The Southern part of the Carpathian Mts. is in Romania extends over a third of the country's area and is covered with more than 2 million hectares of grasslands. The Romanian mountain grasslands are presented in their natural successions between 500 - 2500 m altitude, with respect to the ratio forest : grassland in the nemoral belt and their productivity dynamics along altitudinal gradients. In a case study investigated in the Bucegi mountains data are given about morphological, chemical and physiological differences between some plant populations (Festuca rubra, F. airoides, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Trifolium pratense, Potentilla ternata, Viola declinata) located in a montane and a sub-alpine pasture. Current issues regarding the mountain pastures in Romania  are pointed out :decrease of animals stocks, change in the structure of animals grazing the pastures, increase of abandoned arable areas etc.

General trends of fauna biodiversity dynamics as the result of the anthropogenic transformation of the meadow landscapes.

Mikhail M.Pikulik
Institute of Zoology
National Academy of Sciences of Belarus
Minsk, Belarus
e-mail: mab@mserv.bas-net.by

The data, which have been collected by Institute of Zoology of National Academy of Sciences of Belarus within last 25 years, are analyzed. These data characterize the influence of the meadow anthropogenic transformation on different systematic groups of wild fauna biodiversity dynamics in Belarus.
Meadow ecosystems of Belarus occupy 3,286,100 hectares (15,8 % of the territory). The most important global ecological value among them has river floodplain, or water meadows (5,2%). In the recent  35-40 years meadows  have been subjected to a severe anthropogenic transformation and their area has been cut by almost 50%.
The different forms of drainage reclamation followed by cattle pasture and agriculture are the main factors of influence on meadow landscapes.
The initial stage of meadow’s transformation is characterized by zoocenozis structure alteration - complete vanishing of single species, reduction of the number, domination change from one side; appearance of new species, increase in the number of some species and groups of animals - from the other side.
The landscape-geographic relationship of drainage boggy and unundable land reclamation consequences was found. Zoocenozis of the wide unundable zones (Polessie, the South of Belarus) are more resistant than zoocenozis with narrow floodplain (the North of Belarus).
The report will be focused on the contemporary approaches of complex assessment of influence of drainage land reclamation and other forms of the anthropogenic transformation on fauna considering National strategy and action plan on conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity in the Republic of Belarus.  The recommendations for ecological optimization of the meadow landscapes economic use will be presented.

Semi-natural grasslands of the Slovak Carpathians - present state, endangerment and possibilities of their protection

Helena Ruzickova
Institute of Landscape Ecology SAS
Bratislava, Slovakia

At present grasslands occupy 30,5 % and pastures 22,7 % of agriculture soil. Of course their distribution is not even, in lower areas there are less pastures, but certain mountain villages farm almost only on grass stands. The present state, extent, mood of use and the consequent species composition of the majority of grasslands was influenced by gradual extintion of private farming after 1950, arising of cooperative farms, extinction of their traditional way of utilization. By generous financial state support thex have been recultivated, drained, landscape verdure has been removed, adjusted areas have been planted by not original specoes of grasses and clovers reacting very well on mineral fertilization. Meadows that could be intensified by this way - on steep slopes, badly accessible sites, far mountain ridges were afforested (natural and artificial seeding), changed to pastures or lie fallow.
Intensive mood of managemt was connected also with the concentration of farming animals. Permanent as well as transitional shedding of large stocks, their grazing on sensitive substrata disposed to erosion causes serious ecological problems on many sites.
Semi-natural grasslands managed in traditional way can be found only in the villages where collectivization has not been carried out, around secluded houses, isolated "kopanitse" settlements, in old long-boled orchards, around gamekeeper's cottages, shooting lodges etc. In Slovakia there are only few and they are not recorded.
In spite of the fact, that grasslans rich in species are one of the most endangered plant communities of Slovakia, only a small part of them is protected by special regime of management in nature reserves. Therefore there are only a small chance for conservation of a wide scale of extensive types rich in species. In agriculture or nature protection there are not separated financies for regular, organized management of selected types of stands.
 
 

Sheep grazing as alternative management of mountain meadows